Enlightenment Deism

A. W. (fl. 1680s) was an unknown writer who did not believe God made revelations. The best introduction to his ideas is his essay “Of Natural Religion, as opposed to Divine Revelation,” in Charles Blount, The Miscellaneous Works of Charles Blount (London, 1695), 197-211.4

Thomas Amory (1691?-1788?) wrote very popular theologically-oriented novels in which he advocated Christian deism. A good introduction to his ideas is The Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain (London, 1755), 213-4, 513-27, 269-283.

David Andrews (fl. 1790s) defended Thomas Paine’s attacks on Christianity. The best introduction to Andrews’ deist ideas is his short pamphlet A Letter to G. Wakefield, B. A. on his Spirit of Christianity, Compared with the Spirit of the Times in Great Britain (London, 1794).

Peter Annet (1693-1769) was a schoolmaster who lost his job because of his criticism of Christianity. He claimed true Christianity was Jesus’ moral teachings. A good introduction to Annet’s ideas is his A Collection of the Tracts of a Certain Free Enquirer, Noted by his Sufferings for his Opinions (London, 1739), 120-50.

Anonymous (fl. 1740s) was the unknown author of the book The Reformation Reformed: Or, An Attempt Towards Uniting all Protestants in One Opinion Concerning Religion and Government (London, 1743). He advocated “true Christianity” but rejected much of the Old Testament. The best introduction to his ideas is pages 43-60 of this book.

Anonymous (fl. 1750s) was the unknown author of A Dissertation Proving the Light of the Gospel is the Light of Nature (London, 1756). He advocated a mystical interpretation of Jesus and his teachings. The best introduction to his ideas is pages iii-viii &1-32 of this book.

Anonymous (fl. 1750s) was the unknown author of the commentary in Free Thoughts Upon Faith: Or the Religion of Nature. A Poem, with Notes (Liverpool, 1758). The best introduction to his ideas is pages 3-34 in this book.

Anonymous (fl. 1790s) was the unknown author of Rational Religion, or the Faith of Man, a Poem (London, 1791). In this long poem, he articulated the basic tenets of deism. The best introduction to his ideas is pages 6-30 of this book.

Anonymous (fl. 1733) wrote “A Philosopher’s Prayer,” in Eustace Budgell, The Bee: Or, Universal Weekly Pamphlet, vol. 9 (London, 1733), 514-6.

Walter Awberry (fl. 1731) was the author of a letter entitled “To the Publisher of the Independent Whig,” which was included in later editions of the collected essays of The Independent Whig. In this letter, he profusely praised all the deist ideas advocated in The Independent Whig. This letter is in Thomas Gordon, The Independent Whig, 8th ed., 4 vols. (London, 1733), 1:xxxv-lxxii. (For the identification of “W. A.” as Walter Awberry, see the Dictionary of National Biography, ed. Sidney Lee (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1900), 62:140.)

John Baskerville (1706-1775) was a famous printer and typeface designer. His only religious writing was in his will where he claimed the Christian revelation was “the most Impudent Abuse of Common Sense which Ever was Invented to Befool Mankind.” He also contended true religion was just being moral, which he contended was sufficient to “entitle him to Divine favour.” (For Baskerville’s will, see Ralph Straus and Robert K. Dent, John Baskerville: A Memoir (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907), 117.

Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) was a celebrated wood engraver especially noted for his small engravings of birds. He thought Jesus taught only the simple principles of deism. The best introduction to his deist ideas is his book A Memoir of Thomas Bewick: Written by Himself, ed. Iain Bain (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 211-26.

Abraham Binns (fl. 1790s) thought the Bible needed to be made compatible with morality and science. The best introduction to his ideas is his short pamphlet Remarks on a Publication, Entitled, “A Serious Admonition to the Disciples of Thomas Paine, and all Other Infidels” (Stockport, 1796).

Charles Blount (1654-1693) committed suicide after his wife died because he desired to marry her sister, an action that was considered immoral as well as being illegal. He published works that were influenced by both Herbert of Cherbury and Benedict Spinoza. An introduction to his deist thought is The Miscellaneous Works of Charles Blount (London, 1695), 88-96, 1-15.

James Boevey (1622-1696) was a merchant, lawyer, and writer. His religious ideas were deeply influenced by the ideas of Herbert of Cherbury. The best introduction to Boevey’s religious ideas are pages 1-41 of his handwritten, unpublished pamphlet The Deists [sic] Reflections upon Religion DE/P/F47/4, 1691, Hertfordshire Archives and Local Studies, Hertfordshire, England. (This manuscript is at the Hertfordshire Archives where it can be viewed or a digital copy can be ordered.)

Bolingbroke, or Henry St. John, (1678-1751) was a wealthy politician. He was a leader of the conservative Tories and went into exile for supporting the Jacobite rebellion against George I. Bolingbroke thought the introduction of Platonic philosophy into Christianity had corrupted the pure Christianity Jesus taught. A good introduction to Bolingbroke’s deist ideas is The Philosophical Works of the Late Right Honorable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke(London, 1754), 5:361-79.

Alexander Campbell (fl. 1750) was a midshipman on the HMS Wager when the crew mutinied. He thought the Old Testament was not part of true Christianity. The best introduction to his religious ideas is his book An Examination of Lord Bolingbroke’s Letters on History, 2nd ed. (London, 1753), 1-33.

Thomas Chatterton (1752-1770) was a poet best known for his Rowley series of poems. He believed in God but did not accept Christianity. The best statement of his religious ideas is the poem “The Defence,” which is in The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton (Cambridge, 1842), 2:439-42.

Thomas Chubb (1679-1747) came from a poor, working-class background and worked as a salesclerk. He thought the original teachings of Jesus had been corrupted by his first disciples. A good introduction to Chubb’s ideas is The Posthumous Works of Thomas Chubb, 2 vols. (London, 1748), 2:1-50.

Anthony Collins (1676-1729) was a wealthy country squire who wrote many deist books. He was influenced by John Locke and radical continental thinkers. An introduction to Collins’ religious ideas is his A Discourse of Free-Thinking(London, 1713), 1-41.

Thomas Cooke (1703-1756) was an editor and playwright. He was also a Greek scholar who translated the works of Hesiod and received the nickname “Hesiod” Cooke. Cooke advocated a return to Stoicism. A good introduction to his ideas is his book A Demonstration of the Will of God by the Light of Nature (London, 1748), 136-171.

William Corry (fl. 1750s) wrote Reflections on Liberty and Necessity, &c (London, 1759). His book focuses on showing that people have no free will. The best introduction to his ideas is pages 30-49 of this book.

Manasseh Dawes (d. 1829) was a barrister who wrote essays defending the American side in the Revolutionary War. There is no good introduction to his deist ideas.

Deist (fl. 1796) was the pen name of the author of the short pamphlet Thomas Paine Vindicated, Being a Short Letter to the Bishop of Landaff’s [sic] Reply to Thomas Paine’s Age of Reason (London, 1796). This pamphlet defends Thomas Paine.

Thomas Dutton (fl. 1790s) was a poet and soldier. His most important theological work was a defense of Thomas Paine’s religious works. The best introduction to Dutton’s ideas is his pamphlet A Vindication of the Age of Reason by Thomas Paine (London, 1795), 109-131.

Daniel Isaac Eaton (1753-1814) was a publisher of radical books and pamphlets. He despised the Old Testament but still saw himself as a Christian. The best introduction to his religious ideas is The Trial of Mr. Daniel Isaac Eaton for Publishing the Third and Last Part of Paine’s Age of Reason (London, 1812), 27-36.

Thomas Edwards (d. 1810) was a minister and fellow of Cambridge University as well as a writer and editor. He claimed that the Bible had many significant errors and that the only doctrine a Christian had to believe was that Jesus rose from the dead. The best introduction to Edward’s deist ideas is his short pamphlet A Discourse on the Limits and Importance of Free Enquiry in Matters of Religion (Bury, 1792).

Friend to Truth (fl. 1780s) was the pen name of the otherwise unknown author of the book Observations Upon the Four Gospels Shewing Their Defects . . . By Authority (Geneva, 1789). While he thought Jesus worked miracles, thebook was focused on showing the Bible was too inconsistent to be an accurate account of Jesus’ life and works. The best introduction to his deist ideas is pages 337-50 of this book.

Thomas Gordon (c. 1691-1750) was a writer whose patron and co-writer was John Trenchard. Gordon’s works were very influential among colonial Americans. He advocated a deistic form of Christianity. The best introduction to his religious ideas is the essay “In what only True Religion Consists” in the Independent Whig (London, 1721), 429-44.

James Edward Hamilton (fl. 1790s) was a writer who claimed to share the beliefs of the earliest Christians. The best introduction to his religious ideas is the ending section labelled “To the Reader” in his book Strictures upon Primitive Christianity . . . Mr. Babcock: Part the Second (London, 1792), 1-12.

John Henley (1692-1756) was originally a minister of the Church of England. After leaving that church, he became extremely well-known for his church/comedy show that he called the Oratory. He advocated a mystical interpretation of Jesus and his teachings. The best introduction to Henley’s deist ideas is his book The Coup de Grace: or, Mr. Bayle’s Prophecy Fulfilled, 4th ed. (London, 1745), 2-20.

Herbert of Cherbury (1583-1648) was the English ambassador to France as well as the first English deist. He thought God had placed innate ideas into people’s minds to inform them of their religious duty. The best introduction to his religious ideas is De Veritate, trans. Meyrick H. Carre (Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith, 1937), 289-307.

John Hollis (1757-1824) was a former Unitarian who decided Christianity could not be a revelation from God because the Bible was too immoral. The best introduction to his deist ideas is his short pamphlet Sober and Serious Reasons for Scepticism, as it Concerns Revealed Religion (London, 1796).

John Holwell (1711-1798) went to Calcutta as a surgeon when he was still young. In India, he was appointed to various offices including temporary governor. He claimed there was a divine revelation in India, which taught the same principles as the Christian revelation. A good introduction to his ideas is his book Interesting Historical Events, Relative to the Provinces of Bengal… Part III (London, 1771), 41-91.

Jacob Ilive (1705-1763) was a printer who was jailed for blasphemy. In his early works, he defended Christianity, but in his final theological work he claimed Christianity was not a divine revelation. The best introduction to his final thoughts is his Modest Remarks on the Bishop of London’s Several Discourses (London, 1755), 49-65. (He published this book under the pen name of Philotheos.)

Soame Jenyns (1704-1787) was an esteemed writer and politician who announced his conversion from deism to a kind of Jesus-centered deism in 1776. He said the purity of Christianity’s moral doctrine proved it was a divine revelation, but he did not think the New Testament itself was a divine revelation. An introduction to his deist ideas is A View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion, 3rd ed. (London, 1776), 115-33.

Francis Lodwick (1619-94) was a merchant and member of the Royal Society. He did not publish his religious manuscripts, but they were published in the book On Language, Theology and Utopia, edited by Felicity Henderson and William Poole (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2011). Lodwick believed Jesus was sent by God to remind people of the truths of natural religion. The best introduction to his deist ideas are pages 171-99, 209-15, 243-5, 270-8 of this book.

Doctor Lyons (fl. 1720s) was a physician and author. He read the early philosophical work of young Ben Franklin, and they became friends. Lyons was a Pythagorean. The best introduction to his religious ideas is his The Infallibility of Human Judgment, its Dignity and Excellency, 5th ed. (London, 1725), 9-18, 29-35, 77-81, 174-82, 233-5.

Allan Macleod (d. 1805) was born in Scotland, but he spent most of his life in England as a political writer and editor. An introduction to his deist ideas is The Bishop of Landaff’s “Apology for the Bible” Examined (London, 1796), 251-283.

Conyers Middleton (1683-1750) was the librarian at Cambridge University. In the late 1740s, he caused a major controversy over the question of exactly when Christians stopped being able to work miracles. A good introduction to his ideas is The Miscellaneous Works of the Late Reverend and Learned Conyers Middleton (London, 1752), 2:144-51, 304-16.

Misophenax (fl. 1762) was the pen name of the anonymous author of Christianity True Deism (London, 1762). He identified Christianity with deism. While he is unknown now, his book was reviewed favorably in two eighteenth-century English journals and a French one. The best introduction to his deist ideas is pages 35-81 of this book.

Thomas Morgan (1671/2-1743) was originally a Presbyterian minister, but he was dismissed for his unorthodox ideas. He then became a doctor to support himself. He described himself as a Christian deist and claimed real Christianity was not based on the Old Testament. A good introduction to his ideas is his most important book, The Moral Philosopher, 2nd ed. (London, 1738), iii-xii, 142-70, 358-86.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was born to Quaker parents in England. After he went to America, his pamphlet “Common Sense” was instrumental in helping the Americans win the Revolutionary War. He despised Christianity and thought science proved deism was true. A good introduction to his ideas is the conclusion of his book The Age of Reason.

Samuel Parvish (fl. 1730s) was a bookseller. He thought many Christian doctrines were shown to be false if one examined them carefully. A good introduction to his ideas is his book An Inquiry into the Jewish and Christian Revelation (London, 1739), iii-vi, 1-30. (The character “Indus” represents his views)

James Pitt (fl. 1714-1755) wrote articles under the pen names of “Socrates” and “Publicola” for the London Journal in the late 1720s and early 1730s. He thought true Christianity was identical to Jesus’ original teachings. Pitt was widely read as this newspaper was the most popular English newspaper of its time. The best introduction to his deist ideas are two articles in the London Journal: “An Essay on Original Primitive Christianity,” published on November 15, 1729, and “The Vindication of Lord Shaftesbury’s Writings, Continued,” published on June 17, 1732.

Rational Christian (fl. 1760s) was an otherwise unknown author of the book The Morality of the New Testament Digested Under Various Heads (London, 1765). He maintained that the Gospel was nothing more than a retelling of the religion of nature. The best introduction to his deist ideas are pages 1-39, 58-70 of this book.

Real Deist (fl. 1767) was the anonymous author of Thoughts on Miracles in General, and as They Relate to the Establishment of Christianity in Particular (London, 1767). He denied God ever worked miracles or made revelations. The best introduction to his ideas is pages 91-107 of this book.

M. Robles (fl. 1740s) was a Jewish stockbroker and lecturer on deist topics. He praised free-thinking in religious matters, disparaged superstition, and maintained God never acted immorally. The best introduction to his ideas is his pamphlet Bigotry, Superstition and Hypocrisy Worse than Atheism (London, 1742), 1-33

Shaftesbury (1671-1713), or Anthony Ashley Cooper, was tutored by John Locke. Shaftesbury’s works, however, were deeply influenced by Stoicism and Platonism. An introduction to his deist ideas is The Life, Unpublished Letters and Philosophical Regime of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury, ed. Benjamin Rand (New York: MacMillan, 1900), 1-33.

Matthew Tindal (1657-1733) was a lawyer and a fellow at Oxford University. He claimed his ideas were those of a Christian deist. The best introduction to his ideas is his book Christianity as Old as the Creation: Or, the Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature (London, 1731), 1-54.

John Toland (1670-1722) was a writer who edited the works of many classic English political writers. His most famous book was Christianity not Mysterious (London, 1702). He also had more radical ideas that he limited to his unpublished manuscripts.

John Trenchard (1662-1723) was a lawyer and a commissioner of forfeited estates in Ireland. His writings were very influential among colonial Americans. He believed Christianity had been corrupted by the desire of priests and ministers for more power and status. The best introduction to his religious ideas is the essay “In what only True Religion Consists” in the Independent Whig (London, 1721), 429-44.

Thomas Tryon (1634-1703) was the major advocate of vegetarianism at the end of the seventeenth century. He was influenced by Neoplatonic and Pythagorean ideas, but he believed the only true religion was piety and morality. The best introduction to his deist ideas is “Of the Various Opinions in Religion,” in his book Tryon’s Letters, Domestick and Foreign (London, 1700), 61-3.

John Walker (1759-1830) was a writer and doctor. He is best known as the leading smallpox vaccinator in early nineteenth-century London, where he personally vaccinated tens of thousands of people. The best introduction to his religious ideas is chapter ten of John Epps, The Life of John Walker, M.D. (London, 1831). This chapter is a review of Walker’s religious views compiled from papers Walker left behind.

John Wilkes (1725-1797) was a member of Parliament who was later elected Lord Mayor of London. He is best known for his ridicule of important Christian doctrines. The best introduction to his deist ideas is chapter four of John Sainsbury’s John Wilkes: The Lives of a Libertine (Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006). This chapter is about Wilkes’ religious views, and it incorporates material from his unpublished letters.

David Williams (1738-1816) was a Christian minister for several years and later became a schoolmaster. He denied God ever worked miracles or made revelations. For four years he led deist public worship services in London and later was a founder of the Royal Literary Fund. The best introduction to his deist ideas is his book A Liturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality (London, 1776), 1-13.

William Wollaston (1659-1724) was a schoolmaster who retired to write after he received a significant inheritance from a relative. He believed God providentially cared for people without ever doing miracles. An introduction to his deist ideas is his book The Religion of Nature Delineated (London, 1724), 103-125.

Probable Deists, Former Deists, and People Investigated to Determine if They were Deists

There were two groups of people who were highly likely to have been deists, but I did not include them in the above list because I could not find enough information about them.

1. The first group were four speakers at the Robinhood Society debating club, which was an extremely popular debating club in London in the middle of the eighteenth century. These four speakers were Mr. Bdgtn, Mr. Cdl, Mr. Grs, and Richard MCLY. These speakers defended deism according to Francis Gentleman’s book The History of the Robinhood Society (London, 1764), 194, 181, 143, 181.
2. The second group of likely deists were four writers who praised other deists and their deist ideas. These four writers were Eustace Budgell, Martin Eagle, the anonymous author of A Vindication of the Memory of Mr. Chubb(London, 1747), and the anonymous reviewer of Misophenax’s book Christianity True Deism in The Monthly Review of July, 1762, pages 32-7. Because these eight people defended deism or praised deists, they were very likely to have been deists, but I could not be certain as I could not find enough information about them.
3. There were also five other people who, by their own admission, were deists for a period of time, but later recanted their deism. These five were Captain Wilson, James Lackington, Charles Gildon, William Godwin, and James Boswell.
4. There were many other thinkers whom their contemporaries or modern scholars considered deists. Some of these thinkers were not deists and others I could not find enough evidence to prove they were deists. These figures included Joseph Ames, John Asgill, Maurice Ashley, R. Bell, Thomas Bentley, Sir Brooke Boothby, Sir Thomas Browne, Thomas Burnet, Ephraim Chambers, John Clendon, Martin Clifford, Bernard Connor, John Gilbert Cooper, Henry Coventry, William Coward, John Craig, Erasmus Darwin, Thomas Day, Tinkler Duckett, Edward Evanson, Blencombe Fisher, Martin Folkes, Charles James Fox, John Fransham, Dr. Samuel Garth, Francis Glisson, Edmund Halley, Thomas Harriot, James Harris, Sedgwick Harrison, John Hawkesworth, John Hervey, Edmund Hickeringill, William Hodgson, Thomas Holcroft, William “Orientalist” Jones, William Kenrick, Thomas Lyttleton, Thomas Marryat, Frank Nicholls, William Nicholson, Dr. Thomas Pellet, Robert Pescod, Ambrose Philips, Francis Place, Mr. Reynolds, Sir Samuel Romilly, George Rous, William Skinner, Thomas Spence, Nicholas Stevens, John Stewart, Samuel Strutt, John Suckling, William Taylor, William Temple, John Thelwall, Samuel Thompson, John Tillard, and the unknown author of The Religion of Reason: Addressed to the Rising-Generation . . . his Son (London, 1754).

The deists often ridiculed and criticized their Christian contemporaries because the deists thought the clergy had perverted true religion through the clergy’s thirst for money and power. The Christian clergy were understandably very upset at this accusation. One response of the clergy was to call some thinkers who ridiculed or criticized them deists, even if these thinkers did not espouse natural religion. In particular, Thomas Woolston was often labeled a deist, as were Bernard Mandeville, and Henry Dodwell, Jr. But none of these thinkers advocated natural religion. If one reads Thomas Woolston’s works, he consistently claimed he was advocating the ancient Christianity of the Church Fathers.(See, for example, A Discourse on the Miracles of our Saviour, 4th ed. (London, 1728), 5-6.) Henry Dodwell Jr.’s one book, Christianity not Founded on Argument, advocates a form of what we now call evangelical Christianity. Bernard Mandeville’s most comprehensive theological work, Free Thoughts on Religion, the Church, and National Happiness (London, 1720), advocated a form of theologically liberal Protestantism. If any of these three thinkers were stating their true beliefs, they were not deists. If they were not stating their true beliefs, we do not know what their true religious beliefs were. Therefore, I did not include them among the deists.